Traumatic Shoulder Instability.

Figure 5 - Functional impairment among TUBS patients

Figure 6 - Glenoid abutting against the cuff insertion to the head posteriorly

Evaluation and examination

Functional evaluation

Physical examination

The goal of the physical examination is largely to confirm the impression obtained from the history: that a certain combination of arm position and force application produces the actual or threatened glenohumeral instability that is of functional concern to the patient. If the diagnosis has been rigorously established from the history, for example by documented recurrent anterior dislocations, it is not necessary to risk redislocation on the physical examination. If such rigorous documentation is not available, however, we must challenge the ligamentous stability of the shoulder in the suspected position of vulnerability. We seek to have the patient identify the positions and events that are of functional significance.

The most common direction of recurrent traumatic instability is anteroinferior. Stability in this position is challenged by externally rotating and extending the arm elevated in the coronal plane. This is conveniently done in the supine position with one of the examiner's hands under the back of the shoulder serving as a fulcrum for the external rotation and extension force. We apply extension and external rotation loads in different positions of elevation to challenge the various parts of the anterior capsular mechanism. The patient will very often guard against the position of instability by actively limiting the range of humeroscapular motion. For this reason, we may need to hold the arm in the challenging position for 1 to 2 minutes to fatigue the stabilizing musculature. When the muscle stabilizers tire, the capsuloligamentous mechanism is all that is holding the humeral head in the glenoid. At this moment the patient with traumatic anterior instability becomes apprehensive, recognizing that the shoulder is about to come out of joint. This recognition is strongly supportive of the diagnosis of traumatic anterior instability.

Standard tests of glenohumeral laxity are of limited value in the diagnosis of traumatic instability. As has been described earlier the magnitude of translation on the standard test of glenohumeral laxity does not distinguish stable from unstable shoulders. The magnitude of translation on some clinically stable shoulders may be as great or greater than that on shoulders with traumatic instability. However, the experienced examiner may detect certain findings such as increased ease of translation on the anterior drawer test or grinding as the humeral head slides over a bony edge of the glenoid from which the labrum has been avulsed. There may also be a catching or a locking of a torn glenoid labrum, producing findings analogous to those of a torn meniscus in the knee.

We do not consider pain on abduction, external rotation and extension to be specific for instability. Such pain may relate to shoulder stiffness or alternatively to abutment of the glenoid against the cuff insertion to the head posteriorly. Furthermore, relief of this pain by anterior pressure on the humeral head may result from diminished stretch on the anterior capsule or from relief of the abutment posteriorly.

In all patients with traumatic instability but particularly in those over age 35, the strength of the internal and external rotation must be examined. With increasing age, there is an increasingly common association between traumatic glenohumeral instability and rotator cuff defects. Patients with significant cuff lesions may demonstrate atrophy of the spinatus muscles as well as pain and or weakness on resisted abduction or external rotation. Any rotator cuff pathology must be recognized and incorporated in the treatment plan.

Finally, carefully examine the brachial plexus to assure that the episodes of traumatic instability have not compromised its function.

Radiographs

Radiographs frequently help to provide confirmation of traumatic glenohumeral instability. These findings may include an indentation or impaction in the posterior aspect of the humeral head from contact with the anteroinferior corner of the glenoid when the joint is dislocated. Radiographs may also reveal a periosteal reaction to the ligamentous avulsion at the glenoid lip or occasionally a fracture of the glenoid rim.

These lesions are usually revealed by an anteroposterior view in the plane of the scapula, a proper axillary view, and an apical oblique view, as shown in the example movie listed below. We have not found additional radiographic views, CT arthrography, or MRI to be cost effective in the evaluation of shoulders with characteristic traumatic instability. We occasionally use CT to define the magnitude of bone loss when a sizable humeral head or glenoid defects have been identified on a series of plain radiographs.

In a patient whose onset of traumatic instability occurred after age 35 there may be evidence on history and physical examination of rotator cuff pathology. In these situations, preoperative imaging of cuff integrity may play an important role in surgical planning: the approach for rotator cuff repair is quite different than the approach for the repair of an anterior inferior capsular lesion.

Electromyography may be helpful in the evaluation of the patient with recurrent traumatic instability if the history and physical examination suggest residual brachial plexus lesions.

Movie

• TUBS radiograph movie (0.78 MB)

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